Bibliography 

The following sources of general information provided information included in the Chemistry of Chemical Warfare (CW) Agents page. This bibliography is subdivided into sources of general information, chemical information, and information on toxicity, ocean dumping, and environmental fate. Please note that his division is not a strict one; for example, there is considerable information on chemistry that can be found in the "general" sources.

General Sources

The sources listed in this section are very useful for finding further information on the subject of chemical warfare agents and chemical weapons. The works cited in the first list cover much of the history of the subject and are particularly accessible to the layperson:

• Paxman, J.; Harris, R., A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret Story of Chemical and Biological Warfare, Hill and Wang, New York: 1982.
• Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, The Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare. A Study of the Historical Technical, Military, Legal, and Political Aspects of CBW and Possible Disarmament Measures. Vol. 1. The Rise of CB Weapons, Humanities Press: New York, 1971.
• Haber, L. F., The Poisonous Cloud. Chemical Warfare in the First World War, Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1986.
• Compton, J. A. F., Military Chemical and Biological Agents: Chemical and Toxicological Properties, Telford Press: Caldwell, NJ, 1988.
• Perera, J., New Scientist, 4 April 1985, 107, 8 et seq.
• The Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, 4 ed., Vol. 5, pp. 795-802.

The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) has a list of their publications on the topic of chemical and biological warfare on their web site at http://www.sipri.org/publications. This list contains many other works on the subject.

The works cited on the following list are also good sources of general information on this topic. However, for a variety of reasons, these sources tend to be more difficult to obtain than those cited above.

• Prentiss, A. M., Chemicals in War. A Treatise on Chemical Warfare, McGraw Hill: New York, 1937.
• The Merck Index, 11 ed., Budavari, S.; O'Niel, M. J.; Smith, A.; Heckelmanm, P. E., Eds., Merck & Co.: Rahway, 1989.
• Franke, S., Manual of Military Chemistry, Volume 1. Chemistry of Chemical Warfare Agents, Deutscher Militîrverlag: Berlin (East), 1967. Translated from German by U.S. Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, Institute for Applied Technology, NTIS no. AD-849 866.
• Antonov, N., Chemical Weapons at the Turn of the Century, report no. LN 72-96.
• Fedorov, L. A., Chemical Weapons in Russia: History, Ecology, Politics, Center of Ecological Policy of Russia: Moscow, 1994. Translated from Russian by Foreign Broadcast Information Service.
• Military Chemistry and Chemical Compounds, Department of the Army, October 1975, FM 3-9/AFM 355-7.
• Chemical Agent Data Sheets, Vol. I, EO-SR-74001, Edgewood Arsenal, 1974.

Chemistry Sources

The sources listed in this section  provided chemical data for the Chemistry of Chemical Warfare (CW) Agents page. Note that to the extent possible, primary literature is used rather than secondary literature. Wherever possible, open peer-reviewed literature has been cited; however, some chemical data are available only in restricted sources.

•  Albizo, J. M.; Ward, J. R., Hydrolysis of GD and VX by 0.05M/0.10M Copper(II)-N,N,N',N'-tetramethylenediamine (TMEN), in Proceedings, Army Science Conference (16th), Volume 1, 25-27 October 1988, pp. 33-37, AD-A203101.
• Albrizo, J. M.; Ward, J. R., Soman hydrolysis catalyzed by HEPES buffer, J. Mol. Catal., 1991, 66(2), 191-194.
• Augustinsson, K.-B.; Heimburger, G., Enzymatic hydrolysis of organophosphorus compounds. VI. Effect of metal ions on the phosphorylphosphatases of human serum and swine kidney, Acta Chim. Scand., 1955, 9, 383-392.
• Bartlett, P. D; Swain, C. G., K inetics of Hydrolysis and Displacement reactions of b,b'- Dichlorodiethyl Sulfide (Mustard Gas) and of b -Chloro-b -hydroxydiethyl Sulfide (Mustard Chlorohydrin), J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1949, 71, 1406-1415.
• Brookfield, K. J.; Woodward, F. N.; Owens, R., The kinetics of hydrolysis of vesicants. Part II. 2,2'-dichlorodiethylsulphide (H), Sutton Oak Report 576. Great Britain, 3 March 1942.
• Brookfield, K. J.; Moelwyn-Hughes, E. A.; Phillips, J. W. C., The rate of dissolution of 2,2'-dichlorodiethylsulphide (H)  in distilled and natural waters, Sutton Oak Report 615, Great Britain, 26 November 1942.
• Brumfield, J. L.; Epstein, J.; Warner, . B.; Wilkniss, P. E. Appendix D Results of the chemical survey at DWD Area A in 1972, in Wilkniss, P. E., Environmental Condition Report for Deep Water Dump Area A, NRL Report 7553, Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC, 1 March 1973, p. 43.
• Courtney, R. C.; Gustafson, R. L.; Westerback, S. J.; Hyytiainen, H.; Chaberek, S. C.; Martell, A. E., Metal chelate compounds as catalyts in the hydrolysis of isopropyl methylphosphonofluoridate and diisopropylphosphorofluoridate. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1957, 79, 3030-3036.
• D'Agostino, P. A.; Provost, L. R., The identification of compounds in mustard hydrolysate (U), DRES Suffield Report 412, Ralston, Alberta, Canada, 1985, available through DTIC AD-A156381.
• Demek, M. M. et al., Behavior of chemical agents in seawater, EATR 4417, August 1970, AD-873242.
• Desire, B.; Saint-Andre, S., Interaction of soman with b -cyclodextrin, Fundam. Appl. Toxicol., 1986, 7(4), 646-657.
• Doering, W. E.; Linstead, R. P. Reactions of the chlorine atoms of mustard gas in aqueous media, OSRD Report 1094, December 1942.
• Ellin, R. I.; Groff, W. A.; Kaminskis, A., The stability of sarin and soman in dilute aqueous solutions and the catalytic effect of acetate ion, J. Environ. Sci. Health, Part B, 1981, B16(6), 713-717.
• Epstein, J.; Bauer, V. E.; Saxe, M.; Demek, M. M., The chlorine-catalyzed hydrolysis of isopropyl methylphosphonofluoridate (Sarin) in aqueous solution, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1956, 78, 4068-4071.
• Epstein, J., Rate of decomposition of GB in sea water, Science, 1970, 170, 1936-1938.
• Epstein, J.; Rosenblatt, D. H.; Gallacio, A.; McTeague, W. F., Summary report on a data base for predicting consequences of chemical disposal operations, EASP 1200-12, January 1973, AD-B955399 (distribution limited to U.S. Government).
• Epstein, J.; Callahan, J. J.; Bauer, V. E., The kinetics and mechanisms of hydrolysis of phophonothiolates in dilute aqueous solution, Phosphorus, 1974, 4, 157-163.
• Goldman, M.; Dacre, J. C., Lewisite: Its Chemistry, Toxicology, and Biological Effects, Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 1989, 110, 75-115.
• Gustafson, R. L.; Martell, A. E., A kinetic study of the copper(II) chelate-catalyzed hydrolysis of isopropyl methylphosphonofluoridate (Sarin). J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1962, 84, 2309-2316.
• Guthrie, F., On Some Derivatives from the Olefins, Qly. J. Chem. Soc., 1860, 12, 109-20; ibid, 1860-1, 13, 129-135.
• Hammond, P. S.; Forster, J. S.; Lieske, C. N.; Durst, H. D., Hydrolysis of toxic organophosphorus compounds by o-iodosobenzoic acid and its derivatives, J. Am Chem. Soc., 1989, 111, 7860-7866.
• Hammond, P. S.; Forster, J. S., A polymeric amine-copper(II) complex as catalyst for the hydrolysis of 1,2,2-trimethylpropyl methylphosphonofluoridate (Soman) and bis(1-methylethyl)phosphorofluoridate (DFP), J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 1991, 43(10), 1925-1931.
• Holmstedt, B., Synthesis and pharmacology of dimethyl-amidoethoxy-phosphoryl cyanide (Tabun) together with a description of some allied anticholinesterase compounds containing the N-P bond, Acta Physiol. Scand., 1951, 25, Suppl. No. 90, Stockholm.
• Hopkins, E. F., On dichlorethylsulphide (mustard gas). III. Solubility and hydrolysis of dichlorethylsulphide with a new method for estimating small amounts of the same, J. Pharmacol., 1919, 12, 393-403.
• Katritzky, A. R.; Offerman, R. J.; Durst, H. D.; Ward, J. R.; Hovanec, J. W.; Albrizo, J. M., Copper chloride-cyanopyridine complexes as catalysts for the decomposition of fluorophosphonate esters, J. Fluorine Chem., 1989, 44(1) 121-131.
• Ketelaar, J. A. A.; Gersmann, H. R.; Beck, M. M., Metal-catalyzed hydrolysis of thiophosphoric esters, Nature, 1956, 177, 392-393.
• Larsson, L., The hydrolysis of dimethylamido-ethoxy-phosphoryl cyanide (Tabun), Acta Chim. Scand., 1953, 7, 306-314.
• Larsson, L., The alkaline hydrolysis of isopropoxy-methyl-phosphoryl fluoride (sarin) and some analogues, Acta Chem. Scand., 1957, 11, 1131-1142.
• Larsson, L., The alkaline hydrolysis of two sarin analogues and of Tabun, Acta Chim. Scand., 1958, 12, 783-785.
• Meyer, V., Uber Thiodiglykolverbindungen, Ber., 1886, 19, 3259-3266.
• Mohler, H.; Hartnagel, J., Chemische Kampfstoffe XXIII. Hydrolyse von b,b'- Dichlor-diîthyl-sulfid, Helv. Chim. Acta, 1941, 24, 564-570.
• Ogston, A. G.; Holiday, E. R.; Philpot, J. St. L.; Stocken, L. A., The replacement reactions of b,b'- dichlorodiethyl sulphide and of some analogues in aqueous solution: the isolation of b -chloro-b' -hydroxydiethyl disulphide, Trans. Faraday Soc., 1948, 44, 45-52.
• Peters, R. A.; Walker, E. Rate of liberation of Acid by b,b'- dichlorodiethyl sulfide and its analogues and its relation to the "acid" theory of skin vesication, Biochem. J., 1923, 17, 260-276.
• Peters, R. A.; Stocken, L. A., Thompson, R. H. S., British Anti-Lewisite (BAL), Nature, 1945, 156, 616.
• Rosenthal, R. W.; Proper, R.; Epstein, J., The distribution of some phosphonofluoridates between organic solvents and water, J. Phys. Chem., 1956; 60, 1596-1598.
• Rovida, G., Richerche sperimentali con la lewisite. I. Storia e generalit› della lewisite. Il comportamento delle clorovinilcloroarsine con l'aqua, Sperimentale, 1926, 80, 5-24.
• Szafraniec, L. J.; Szafraniec, L. L.; Beaudry, W. T.; Ward, J. R., On the Stoichiometry of Phosphonothiolate Ester Hydrolysis, CRDEC-TR-212, July 1990, AD-A250773.
• van Hooidonk, C.; Breebaart-Hansen, J. C. A. E., Stereospecific reaction of isopropyl methylphosphonofluoridate (sarin) with a -cyclodextrin: a model for enzyme inhibition, Rec. Trav. Chim. Pays Bas, 1970, 89, 289-299.
• Waters, L. I.; Stock, C., BAL (British Anti-Lewisite), Science, 1945, 102, 601.
• Waters, W. A.; Williams, J. H., Hydrolyses and derivatives of some vesicant arsenicals, J. Chem. Soc., 1950, 18-22.
• Ward, J. R.; Seiders, R. P., On the activation energy for the hydrolysis of bis(2-chloroethyl) sulfide, Thermochim. Acta, 1984, 81, 343-348.
• Ward, J. R.; Yang, Y. C.; Wilson, R. B.; Burrows, W. D.; Ackerman, L. L., Base-catalyzed hydrolysis of 1,2,2-trimethylpropyl methylphosphonofluoridate - an examination of the saturation effect, Bioorg. Chem., 1988, 16(1), 12-16.
• Yang, Y.-C.; Ward, J. R.; Wilson, R. B.; Burrows, W.; Winterle, J. S., On the activation energy for the hydrolysis of bis(2-chloroethyl) sulfide. II, Thermochim. Acta, 1987, 114, 313-317.
• Yang, Y.-C.; Szfraniec, L. L.; Beaudry, W. T.;Ward, R. J., Kinetics and mechanism of the hydrolysis of 2-chloroethyl sulfides, J. Org. Chem., 1988, 53(14), 3293-3297.
• Yang, Y.-C.; Szfraniec, L. L.; Beaudry, W. T.; Rohrbaugh,D. K., Oxidative detoxification of phosphonothiolates, J. Am.Chem. Soc., 1990, 112(18), 6621-6627.
• Yang, Y.-C.; Baker, J. A.; Ward, J. R., Decontamination of chemical warfare agents, Chem. Rev., 1992, 92, 1729-1743.
• Yang, Y.-C.; Szfraniec, L. L.; Beaudry, W. T.; Bunton, C. A., Perhydrolysis of nerve agent VX, J. Org. Chem., 1993, 58, 6964-6965.

Other Sources

The following sources provided additional information on chemical warfare agent toxicity, environmental fate, and ocean dumping for the Chemistry of Chemical Warfare (CW) Agents page:

• Assennato G, Lobuono F, Sivo D, Ferri GM. A forgotten exposure: mustard gas among Apulian fishermen, abstract n.P081 (poster session). In: the Annual Conference of the International Society for Environmental Epidemiology and  International Society for Exposure Analysis. Nooerdwijkerthout, The Netherlands, August 30-September1 1995. Epidemiology1995, 6 (suppl 4) :S27.
• Assenato G, Ambrosi F, Sivo D. Possibili effetti a lungo termine sull’apparato respiratorio della esposizione ad iprite tra pescatoi (Possible long term effects on the respiratory tract of the sulfur mustard exposure among fishermen). Med Lav, 1997, in press.
• Brankowitz, W. R., Chemical Weapons Movement. History Compilation, Office of the Program Manager for Chemical Munitions (Demilitarization and Binary) (Provisional), Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, SAPEO-CDE-IS-87001, 12 June 1987, AD-A193348.
• Chem. Eng. News, 1953, 31, 4676-4678.
• Gordon, J. J.; Leadbeater, L., Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 1977, 40, 109.
• Holmsted, B., Pharmacol. Rev., 1959, 11, 567.
• Jorgensen, B. S.; Olesen, B.; Berntsen, O., Mustard gas accidents on Bornholm, Ugeskr. Laeger, 1985, 147(28), 2251-2254.
• Kurata, H., Lessons learned from the destruction of the chemical weapons of the Japanese Imperial Forces, in Chemical Weapons: Destruction and Conversion, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, Taylor and Francis: London, 1980, pp. 77-93.
• MEDEA, Ocean Dumping of Chemical Munitions: Environmental Effects in Arctic Seas, May 1997.
• Price, C. C.; von Limbach, B., Further Data on the Toxicity of Various CW Agents to Fish, OSRD No. 5528, Division 9, National Defense Research Committee of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, 1945.
• Rosenblatt, D. A.; Miller, T. A.; Dacre, J. C.; Muul, I.; Cogley, D. R., Problem Definition Studies on Potential Environmental Pollutants II. Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties of Sixteen Substances, Technical Report 7509, U.S. Army Medical Research and Development Command, Washington, DC, 1975, AD-A020428, pp. A-11, B-6, B-7.
• Theobald, N.; Ruhl, N.-P., Chemical warfare agent munitions in the Baltic Sea, Deutsche Hydrographische Z., 1994, 46, 121-131.

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